The most important contribution of Cicero to Roman thought was to find the Latin equivalents of Greek philosophical concepts. At that time, the words in the Latin language were not enough to meet the Greek philosophy.
(106-43) Roman statesman, philosopher, and orator. He tried to reconcile Greek philosophy with Roman thought through a new interpretation. Born in Arpinum, killed in Formae for his views on nation-government. He first studied law and rhetoric, then concentrated all his studies on Greek philosophy, adopting the Stoic view. According to some sources, he became a student of Poseidonios, who was the manager of the Middle Stoa that Panaitios founded in Rhodes, and adopted his thoughts.
Cicero first established a wide reputation as a lawyer. He traveled to different countries for a while, returned to Rome in 77, went to Sicily when he was appointed as a cester in 75, then returned to Rome, a member of the Senate, and was elected consul. With his effective speeches against Antony, defending a freer and more egalitarian government, he gathered a large supporter community around him. Frightened by his pro-freedom ideas, the Triumvira (the tribunal) sentenced itself to death. Someone he had defended before the judge and saved from punishment, cut off his head in 43 and showed it to the public in the Forum Romanum at Antony's behest.
Marcus Tullius Cicero (3 January 106 BC – 7 December 43 BC) was a Roman statesman, lawyer, scholar, philosopher, writer and academic skeptic, who tried to uphold optimate principles during the political crises that led to the establishment of the Roman Empire. His extensive writings include treatises on rhetoric, philosophy and politics. He is considered one of Rome's greatest orators and prose stylists and the innovator of what became known as Ciceronian rhetoric. Cicero was educated in Rome and in Greece. He came from a wealthy municipal family of the Roman equestrian order, and served as consul in 63 BC.
Cicero approached philosophy by reading the works of the ancient Greek sages, especially Plato and Aristotle, known at the time. Later, he adopted Stoicism and became the pioneer of the philosophy of the will advocated by this movement in Roman thought. He translated the works of Greek philosophers, which he considered important, into Latin. He brought new interpretations to the solution of the problems posed in these works, according to the Stoic understanding. In these interpretations, all problems are looked at from the point of view of the will. According to Cicero, man is a "being of will". For this reason, all his actions and thoughts must be connected to the will. Being under the influence of emotions, and being caught up in passions is incompatible with the will, it leads one to mistakes, and the will requires conforming to nature in life. By complying with nature, the individual gets rid of mistakes, unnecessary behaviors, and imbalances, and becomes compatible with himself.
According to Cicero's understanding, conforming to nature (naturam sequi) constitutes the essence of the philosophy of the will. There are unchanging laws in nature, principles that are in constant harmony with each other. As long as the person obeys these laws and these principles, he is in harmony with nature. Thus, he gets rid of passions, spiritual depression, and falling into deep sorrow by despairing in the face of events. As long as nature is one's guide, there is no unhappiness. Unhappiness arises from the imbalance in the life of the individual, from his behavior that is out of the control of his will and contrary to the laws of nature.
In Cicero's thoughts, the influence of the New Academy, which is outside the Stoic understanding and carries traces of Plato-Aristotelian philosophy, is also seen. In him, it is seen that a skeptical tendency predominates in the face of some social problems. This feature of his gains a prominent feature in the problems of God, spirit, and morality. According to Cicero, there is the concept of God and God. There is a great power that gives order to the universe and harmonizes the objects in the universe, an unlimited will, which is God. Morality is to obey this divine will, this divine lawful power. An example of this is nature. Being moral can be achieved by citizenship, patriotism, self-sacrifice, and a strong harmony among citizens. Therefore, Epicureanism, which sees morality in a different light, interpreting it as the enjoyment of life, is not a coherent philosophy.
Cicero defends the view that society is born as a result of compromise, mutual agreement and conforms to nature. According to him, society is natural, and it consists of individuals as a requirement of the natural order. However, the laws governing individuals should also be in accordance with nature and should be free from the qualities that may lead to inequality and imbalance. Laws should be clear and should not contain content that would allow conflict, hidden products, interests, injustices, and evils. The real law that regulates society and brings harmony between the individuals who compose it is the law based on reason and will. This law is "right mind", "right will". This law has two properties, one is its conformity to nature, and the other is its pervasiveness to the whole universe. This law is immutable and eternal; interpretation does not require subjective explanations.
Cicero's thoughts on death, soul, and life after death, though not very clear, bear traces of the Platonic-Aristotelian philosophy of Virtue. According to Cicero, the spirit is a divine being, not matter. Therefore, it is immortal. However, it is not correct to see the tone, death, and post-mortem situation outside of human nature. These are also related to human nature. Death, which begins with the separation of the spirit from the body, is the first step to a new life. Spirit continues to exist outside of matter, in a happy or unhappy living environment. Although this environment is also connected with nature, it has nothing to do with the earth's life. On the other hand, the belief in the immortality of God and the spirit originates from nature and is related to the immortal essence of nature.
Since nature has certain, unchanging laws, it has nothing to do with coincidence; The opinions of the atomists, especially Epicurus, on this subject are not consistent. The concept of coincidence is an impression created by nature lived in. According to Cicero, the fate that some thinkers put forward is also not real, it is against the essence of nature.
One of the most important issues that Cicero emphasized is "virtue". According to him, virtue and happiness are two conditions that require each other, one cannot exist without the other. Virtue and happiness are linked to the content of the nation's government. An individual can be virtuous and happy in society. It is the duty of the management to ensure this. Cicero exhibited his thoughts on government, laws, and the state in his work De Legibus. According to him, law (ius) forms the basis of administration. Law, on the other hand, is divided into two, one being natural and the other its applications. The source of natural law is human reason. Man can, on the basis of reason, determine the general principles of law that apply to all individuals and all nations.
The most important contribution of Cicero to Roman thought was to find the Latin equivalents of Greek philosophical concepts. At that time, the words in the Latin language were not enough to meet the Greek philosophy. In order to overcome this inadequacy, Cicero found Latin-based equivalents for all the philosophical concepts in the Greek language, thus ensuring that Latin became an original philosophical language in later periods, especially in Christian philosophy. It is also Cicero's second influential achievement. It is the founder of the language of discourse in Roman civilization. Roman rhetoric became a science with Cicero.
Works of Marcus Tullius Cicero:
De Oratore, 55,
De Republica, 54,
De Finibus Bonorum et Malorum, 47,
Tusculanae Disputationes, 45,
De Oficus, 44,
Academica, 45,
De Natura Deorum, 44,
De Amiatia, 44,
De Senectute, 44.